Bibliography

Bartolone, Pauline. “How Bay Area Italians Were Treated as ‘enemy Aliens’ during WWII.” KQED, 14 Dec. 2023, www.kqed.org/news/11969411/how-bay-area-italians-were-treated-as-enemy-aliens-during-wwii.

         During a Christmas gathering last year, Becca Gularte learned a surprising family story from her 90-year-old grandmother Laura. Laura, who was just a child during World War II, had to move because her dad was Italian. This happened to around 10,000 Italian citizens in California who were seen as potential threats during the war. Like Japanese Americans, they faced relocation and restrictions. Laura's family had to leave their home near the coast in Santa Cruz. Some Italians were even put in prison camps. This discrimination was based on fear and prejudice, not evidence of wrongdoing. Eventually, the government realized its mistake and lifted the restrictions on Italians. However, the ordeal had lasting effects on families like Laura's, and many people don't know about this part of history. It's important to remember it so we don't repeat past mistakes and to understand the challenges immigrants face.

Blakemore, Erin. “Why America Targeted Italian Americans during World War II.” History.Com, A&E Television Networks, www.history.com/news/italian-american-internment-persecution-wwii. Accessed 16 Mar. 2024. 

         During World War II, Italian Americans faced discrimination and persecution by the U.S. government. Over 600,000 were treated as "enemy aliens," subjected to internment camps, curfews, and surveillance. This stemmed from longstanding prejudice. Even before the war, Italians faced employment discrimination. Suspicions grew during the war, leading to unjust targeting despite lacking evidence. Families suffered as individuals were arrested, assets frozen, and businesses affected. Italian Americans endured restrictions on movement and employment. Stereotypes persisted post-war. In 2001, Congress acknowledged this persecution. Efforts are ongoing to educate about this dark chapter in history and prevent future injustices.

Caiazza, Tommaso. “‘No Mafia Here’: Crime, Race, and the Narrative of San Francisco’s Italian American ‘Model Colony.’” Scholarly Publishing Collective, Duke University Press, 1 Jan. 2016, scholarlypublishingcollective.org/uip/iar/article-abstract/6/1/31/233999/No-Mafia-Here-Crime-Race-and-the-Narrative-of-San?redirectedFrom=fulltext. Accessed 03 Mar. 2024.

         The article discusses how the Italian American community in San Francisco countered stereotypes of criminality and Mafia affiliation. It explores the history of Italian immigrants in the city and how they worked to establish themselves as law-abiding citizens despite facing discrimination and prejudice. The author analyzes how the Italian American community in San Francisco created a narrative of being a "model colony" free from Mafia influence, challenging negative stereotypes and contributing to the city's cultural and economic development.

D’Ambrosio, Lia. Italian Immigrant Women’s Experiences in Post-World War II ..., digitalworks.union.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1834&context=theses. Accessed 17 Mar. 2024.

         The article talks about the lives of Italian peasant farmers, known as contadini, before and after the economic boom in Italy in the 1960s. In the past, both men and women worked hard in the fields to survive, but when men left Italy for better opportunities elsewhere, women had to take over farming alone. When families moved to America, women had to find jobs outside of agriculture to support their families. Sewing was a common skill among Italian women, so they often found work in garment factories, enduring tough conditions for low pay. In places like Schenectady, where there were industrial job opportunities, women also worked in factories. Over time, as women started families, they moved away from factory work to jobs like domestic service. Despite facing language barriers and cultural differences, Italian women worked hard to provide for their families in their new country.

Guglielmo, Jennifer, and Salvatore Salerno. Are Italians White?: How Race Is Made in America. Routledge, 2003. 

         Chapter 2 of "Are Italians White? How Race Is Made in America" by Jennifer Guglielmo and Salvatore Salerno explores the racialization of Italian immigrants in America during the late 19th and early 20th centuries. It discusses how Italians faced prejudice and discrimination due to anti-immigrant sentiment, economic factors, and racial theories portraying them as inferior. The chapter delves into specific incidents of violence and lynching against Italian Americans, highlighting the challenges they faced in gaining acceptance and recognition as "white" in American society.

LUCONI, STEFANO. “Contested Loyalties: World War II and Italian-Americans’ Ethnic Identity.” Italian Americana, vol. 30, no. 2, 2012, pp. 151–67. JSTOR, http://www.jstor.org/stable/41495581. Accessed 17 Mar. 2024.

The article discusses the situation of Italian Americans during World War II. When Italy declared war on the United States, Italian immigrants were considered "enemy aliens" and faced restrictions on their civil liberties. Many were interned or relocated, and suspicions lingered over Italian American communities, leading to discrimination. While some scholars argue that the war prompted Italian Americans to assimilate and distance themselves from Italy, others suggest that many retained their ethnic identity and loyalty to their ancestral country. Despite outward displays of loyalty to the United States, some Italian Americans still held sentimental attachments to Italy. Many Italian Americans served in the U.S. military, but the conflict between the two countries caused distress among families with ties to Italy. Overall, the war complicated the relationship between Italian Americans and their homeland, leading to a mix of loyalty to both countries.

“Italian Migration to USA before, during and after World War 2.” TraceYourPast.Com, www.traceyourpast.com/articles/italian-migration-to-usa-before-during-and-after-world-war-2. Accessed 16 Mar. 2024.

         The article discusses Italian migration to America and their wartime experiences. From the late 1870s, millions of Italians sought opportunities in the US, settling mainly in California. During World War II, over 1.2 million Italian Americans served in the military, while suspicion and restrictions targeted immigrants, especially in coastal cities. President Roosevelt's Executive Order 9066 led to the internment of Japanese and Italian Americans, with approximately 10,000 Italians forced to relocate inland and travel restrictions imposed on others. Despite challenges, Italians contributed to American society, shaping entertainment, cuisine, and culture, leaving a lasting impact.

“Under Attack:  Italian:  Immigration and Relocation in U.S. History:  Classroom Materials at the Library of Congress:  Library of Congress.” The Library of Congress, www.loc.gov/classroom-materials/immigration/italian/under-attack/. Accessed 16 Mar. 2024. 

         During the late 19th century, Italian immigrants faced a lot of prejudice and hostility in America. People blamed them for taking jobs during an economic depression, and racist ideas said they were inferior to others. Cartoons and songs often portrayed Italians as criminals or subhuman. Anti-immigrant groups and the Ku Klux Klan became more active, attacking Italians and burning Catholic churches. In New Orleans in 1891, a mob lynched 11 Sicilian Americans after a trial found them not guilty of a crime they were accused of. This prejudice lasted until the 1920s when new laws severely restricted immigration, ending the big wave of Italian immigrants coming to America.